Secularism & Identity Politics: The Role of Religion & National Identity

Secularism & Identity Politics: The Role of Religion & National Identity

The French Revolution marked a dramatic shift in the relationship between religion, politics, & national identity. Before 1789, France was deeply rooted in Catholicism, with the Church not only holding vast wealth but also exerting immense political & social influence.

The revolutionaries, in their quest to create a modern nation based on reason, liberty, and equality, sought to dismantle the Church’s power, instituting secularism as a foundational principle of the new republic. However, this effort to separate church and state created deep divisions and conflicts, as it challenged centuries of religious tradition and the role of Catholicism in shaping French identity.

The tensions between secularism and religious identity that emerged during the French Revolution continue to resonate in modern politics, particularly in debates over the role of religion in public life, the rise of identity politics, and the challenges of creating inclusive national identities. Today, as in 1789, questions about how to balance religious freedom with secular governance, and how national identity is shaped by cultural and religious differences, remain at the forefront of political discourse. The French Revolution’s experience with secularism and identity politics offers valuable lessons for understanding the complex dynamics of these issues in the modern world.

The Catholic Church & the Ancien Régime: Religion as Power

Before the revolution, the Catholic Church was one of the most powerful institutions in France, deeply intertwined with the monarchy and the social hierarchy of the Ancien Régime. The Church owned vast amounts of land, collected tithes from the people, and enjoyed a privileged status within the political system. It played a central role in the lives of ordinary French citizens, not only as a spiritual authority but also as a provider of education, charity, and social services. The clergy, particularly the higher ranks of the Church, were closely aligned with the aristocracy, benefiting from the same privileges and exemptions from taxes that fueled resentment among the lower classes.

For the revolutionaries, the Church represented both a symbol of the oppressive social order and an obstacle to the creation of a new, rational, and egalitarian society. The Enlightenment ideals that inspired the revolution emphasized reason, individual rights, and the separation of religious and political authority. Philosophers like Voltaire and Diderot had long criticized the Church’s influence over public life, and the revolution provided an opportunity to put these ideas into practice.

One of the revolution’s earliest and most controversial acts was the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790), which sought to bring the Church under state control. This law required priests to swear an oath of loyalty to the state, effectively making them civil servants, and it reorganized dioceses to match the new administrative divisions of France. Many clergy members refused to take the oath, leading to a schism between the “constitutional” priests, who accepted the revolution’s reforms, and the “refractory” priests, who remained loyal to the Pope. This division fueled widespread unrest, particularly in rural areas where Catholicism was deeply ingrained in local culture and identity.

Secularism as a Revolutionary Principle

The revolutionaries’ push for secularism reached its zenith during the Reign of Terror (1793-1794), when radical leaders like Maximilien Robespierre sought to de-Christianize France entirely. Churches were closed, religious symbols were destroyed, and priests were persecuted. In place of Christianity, the revolutionaries promoted the Cult of Reason, a secular, civic religion that celebrated human reason and the principles of the revolution. Festivals were held in honor of reason, liberty, and the nation, with the aim of fostering a new national identity that was free from religious influence.

This period of radical secularism was short-lived, as it alienated large segments of the population and contributed to the growing backlash against the revolution’s excesses. The Thermidorian Reaction, which ended the Reign of Terror, marked a return to more moderate policies, and Napoleon’s Concordat of 1801 with the Pope restored a degree of religious freedom and reintegrated the Church into French society, albeit under strict state control. Nevertheless, the revolution’s legacy of secularism endured, laying the groundwork for the principle of laïcité—the strict separation of church and state—that would later become a defining feature of the French Republic.

The French Revolution’s approach to secularism highlights a key tension that persists in modern political debates: how to balance the desire for a secular, rational state with the religious and cultural identities of the population. In attempting to marginalize religion in public life, the revolutionaries inadvertently deepened divisions within society, particularly between urban and rural populations and between the educated elite and the deeply religious peasantry. This tension between secularism and religious identity is a recurring theme in many democracies today, as governments grapple with how to maintain neutrality in matters of religion while respecting the diverse beliefs of their citizens.

Secularism & National Identity: The Legacy of Laïcité

The French Revolution’s legacy of secularism, particularly the principle of laïcité, has become a cornerstone of French national identity. Enshrined in the 1905 law separating church and state, laïcitéestablishes the state’s commitment to religious neutrality and prohibits religious influence in public institutions, particularly schools. This principle was intended to create a unified, secular national identity, free from the divisive influence of religion. However, laïcité has also been a source of controversy, particularly in relation to France’s Muslim population, the largest in Europe.

In recent decades, debates over the role of religion in public life have intensified in France, particularly around issues of Islamic dress, such as the hijab and the burqa. Laws banning religious symbols in public schools (2004) and full-face veils in public spaces (2010) have been framed as efforts to uphold laïcité and protect the secular nature of the state. However, critics argue that these laws disproportionately target Muslim women and reflect broader societal anxieties about immigration, integration, and national identity.

The debates over laïcité and religious freedom in France are emblematic of the broader challenges that arise when secularism intersects with identity politics. On one hand, secularism is seen as a way to create a neutral public sphere where all citizens are treated equally, regardless of their religious beliefs. On the other hand, rigid interpretations of secularism can be perceived as infringing on individual rights and alienating religious minorities, who may feel that their cultural and religious identities are not fully accepted within the national community.

These tensions between secularism and religious identity are not unique to France. In many countries, the rise of identity politics—where political movements are organized around shared characteristics such as religion, ethnicity, or gender—has brought renewed attention to the role of religion in shaping national identity. In societies that are becoming increasingly diverse, questions about how to accommodate different religious and cultural identities within a secular framework are at the heart of political debates. The French Revolution’s experience with secularism offers important lessons about both the possibilities and the limits of creating a secular, inclusive national identity.

Identity Politics & Nationalism: The French Revolution’s Legacy

The French Revolution not only transformed the relationship between religion and politics, but it also played a key role in the development of modern nationalism. The revolutionaries sought to create a new sense of national identity, one that was based not on loyalty to the king or the Church but on citizenship and shared values of liberty, equality, and fraternity. This idea of the nation as a community of equal citizens, bound together by a common commitment to democratic principles, was a radical departure from the hierarchical, feudal societies of the past.

However, the revolution also gave rise to a more exclusionary form of nationalism, one that was defined not only by political ideals but also by cultural and ethnic identity. The revolutionaries often framed their struggle in terms of defending the French nation against internal and external enemies, whether they were foreign monarchs or domestic counter-revolutionaries. This rhetoric of national unity and patriotism was used to justify the suppression of dissent and the persecution of those who were seen as not fully part of the national community, including refractory priests, royalists, and foreign émigrés.

This dual legacy of the French Revolution—both as a force for inclusive, democratic nationalism and as a precursor to more exclusionary, identity-based forms of nationalism—continues to shape political discourse today. In many countries, including France, debates over immigration, multiculturalism, and national identity are increasingly framed in terms of who belongs to the nation and who does not. The rise of far-right nationalist movements across Europe and the United States, which often invoke a nostalgic vision of national unity based on cultural or religious homogeneity, echoes the more exclusionary aspects of revolutionary nationalism.

At the same time, progressive movements continue to draw on the French Revolution’s ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity to advocate for more inclusive forms of national identity. These movements often emphasize the need to recognize and accommodate the diverse identities of all citizens, whether they are based on religion, ethnicity, or gender, while maintaining a commitment to democratic principles and human rights.

The Role of Religion in Identity Politics Today

Religion continues to play a significant role in shaping identity politics, both in secular and religious societies. In countries with strong secular traditions, like France, debates over religious symbols, practices, and institutions often serve as proxies for larger discussions about national identity and belonging. For example, the controversy over the wearing of Islamic veils in public spaces is not just about secularism; it is also about how French society defines itself in relation to its Muslim population and how it navigates the tensions between diversity and unity.

In more religiously oriented societies, such as the United States or India, identity politics often revolves around the role of religion in public life and the ways in which religious identity intersects with issues of race, class, and political power. In the U.S., for example, debates over abortion, LGBTQ+ rights, and religious freedom often highlight the tensions between secular governance and religious belief. Meanwhile, in India, the rise of Hindu nationalism has sparked intense debates over the role of religion in shaping national identity and the treatment of religious minorities, particularly Muslims.

The French Revolution’s attempt to create a secular, unified national identity offers valuable insights into these modern challenges. It demonstrates that while secularism can serve as a powerful tool for creating inclusive political systems, it can also deepen divisions when it is perceived as infringing on religious or cultural identities. At the same time, the revolution’s dual legacy of inclusive and exclusionary nationalism reminds us that identity politics can be both a force for liberation and a source of conflict, depending on how it is used to define the boundaries of belonging.

Secularism, Identity Politics, & the Future of Democracy

The French Revolution’s approach to secularism and identity politics continues to shape contemporary political debates in profound ways. The revolutionaries’ efforts to separate church and state, while rooted in Enlightenment ideals of reason and equality, also exposed the deep tensions between secular governance and religious identity. These tensions persist today, as societies grapple with how to balance the principles of secularism with the realities of religious and cultural diversity.

Similarly, the revolution’s legacy of nationalism and identity politics offers both inspiration and caution for modern movements. The idea of the nation as a community of equal citizens, bound together by shared democratic values, remains a powerful force for creating inclusive political systems. However, the exclusionary aspects of revolutionary nationalism, which defined belonging in terms of cultural or religious identity, continue to fuel division and conflict in many parts of the world.

As we look to the future of democracy, the lessons of the French Revolution remind us that the challenges of secularism and identity politics are not new. They are deeply embedded in the history of modern political thought, and they will continue to shape the ways in which we understand and navigate the complexities of national identity, religious freedom, and democratic governance.